# 7. Cartographic Development of the Atlas of Canada ## By E. D. Baldock In 1949 the Canadian Government decided to produce a new National Atlas covering the economic and physical features of the country. The previous Atlas was published in 1915 by the Department of the Interior. A Federal Atlas Committee was formed consisting of various professional and scientific experts. After many meetings a general plan was developed and a tentative table of contents drawn up. Subcommittees were then established, responsible for the collecting of data in specific fields covering:- Agriculture; Historical; Fisheries; Commercial and Social; Meteorological and Climate; Transportation and Communications; Natural Resources; Topographic and Hydrographic. To provide for special maps not covered in these classifications a miscellaneous sub-committee was added. Some preliminary talks had already taken place between the Geographical Branch and the cartographic organization of the Surveys and Mapping Branch regarding the provision of suitable base maps on which contributing agencies could plot the data to be supplied. Maps at a scale of $1'' = 100$ miles, showing only main rivers and census divisions were used for this purpose. Copies were produced in light blue by lithographic printing on a heavy drawing paper. By December 1952, instructions on final scales and a page size of $27^{1/2} \times 20^{3/8}$ were approved by the Atlas Committee. Although data was being compiled by the sub-committees, it was not until 16 February 1954 that cartographic work on the Atlas was finally designated to the Surveys and Mapping Branch and the Chief Cartographer was authorized to proceed with the work. Two decisions were necessary before any cartographic work could commence: a) Colour treatment of base maps b) Colour treatment of land areas of Canada not covered by the economic data illustrated by colour tints. A similar requirement was also necessary for land areas of statistical dot maps. After experimentation it was decided to print base maps used to illustrate economic or statistical data in a neutral tint of purplish grey for the linework and a special light blue for water areas thus giving proper prominence to the colour tints used to portray other features. Land areas of Canada for statistical dot maps and areas not included in colour tints were to be printed in a very light buff stipple. The first cartographic project was to produce base maps in accordance with the approved specifications as follows: 1:10,000,000 To be used generally as a full page map. 1:20,000,000 To be used generally where four maps up on a page are required. 1: 5,000,000 Constructed in three parts, each to occupy a full page of the Atlas. a) Eastern Canada b) Western Canada c) Northern Canada. 1:50,000,000 1: 2,500,000 A skeleton map to be used as a block of 20 maps up on a page. A detailed map in four parts, each to occupy a full page of the Atlas. a) Gulf of St. Lawrence Area b) Great Lakes Area c) The Prairies d) The Far West. The selection of these scales and the actual map area to be illustrated had a direct bearing on the size of paper that could be used. The actual selection of paper presented many problems as opacity and permanence was of the utmost importance together with printing qualities. Many makes of paper were carefully analysed and the final decision was to use a rag paper, size $27^{1/2}$ × $20^{3/8}$ having a high titanium content to insure opacity and a weight of 88 lobs per thousand sheets (based on a paper size of $17'' \times 22''$ ). Page Layouts ![](images/5f647cf65bbdd320d0234d31241d2a9af69ac7fba7156e156d5b2aae1a7586be.jpg) 1:5M 1:10M 1:25M ![](images/37067fac9c7632a97e617dfcce81b05205905cf7cc6680d74f268d45751ca806.jpg) 1:10M 1:5M ![](images/18363ad20b8a67d772135b0d06ecdf1f0048f5b7f54f152ac484f6c0512fc192.jpg) 1:20 M ![](images/6a036be7c9447785897e83065a9efc8bbbb40037e3cfac31edd6b7d9af143998.jpg) 1:50 M A new $1'' = 100$ mile map was selected as the model on which all Atlas bases would be produced. This map was constructed on a Lambert Conformal projection with standard parallels at $49^{\circ}$ and $77^{\circ}$ north latitude, with a polyconic projection superimposed above $80^{\circ}$ north latitude. The 1:10 M base was drawn first on a metal supported paper on which a ferroprussiate image had been printed of the revised $1'' = 100$ mile map. The linework was increased from .005" to .008" to insure good printing of the base in a neutral colour. Considerable care was taken in selecting type to ensure that hairlines, etc. would reproduce. The 1:20 M and 1:50 M maps followed, being drawn in sequence from the previous scale, with the generalizing of topography as the scale increased. The same precautions were observed as to weight of linework and type face to insure reproduction in a neutral tint. The three scales mentioned above covered the majority of Atlas maps. After completion, each base was lithographed in light blue on good drawing paper and passed to the Geographical Branch for compilation purposes. This system was followed with other Atlas bases. The 1:5 M bases were prepared in three parts Eastern Canada; Western Canada and Northern Canada. The 1" = 100 mile map was masked out for the three separate sheets and photographically enlarged to 1" = 52.609 miles. Ferroprussiate prints on metal supported paper were prepared for drafting and the weight of linework agrees with 1:10 M base. Two special bases at 1:5 M (3 sheets) and 1:10 M were required for Bathy-Orographical maps requiring much finer linework as all water features were to be printed in dark blue, and a different type selection was necessary. White scribecoat was used and the bases were engraved from original compilation material. The preparation of the 1:2 $^{1/2}$ M bases was a major operation. As a large map of Canada was required to replace an out of date 1" = 35 mile map, it was decided to construct a six sheet map of Canada compiled at the scale-of 1:1,000,000 on a Lambert Conformal projection above 80° of latitude and to complete the areas required for the Atlas at the scale of 1:2 M. At a later date the other work for the six sheet map could be completed. This map was negative scribed at 1:2 M and composite ferro-prussiate blue lines produced on metal supported paper to which all type matter was added. Areas were masked off on the engravings and type layouts, and combined photographically to provide proper coverage for the four maps at the publishing scale of 1:2,500,000. The type matter was kept separate in order to allow colour separation as required. ## Drawing Scale and Published Scale for Atlas Bases Published Scale Drawing Scale 1:10.000.000 (1" = 157.828 mls) $$ 1 ^ {\prime \prime} = 1 0 5. 2 1 9 \mathrm{mls}. $$ 1:20.000.000 (1" = 315.657 mls) $$ 1 ^ {\prime \prime} = 2 1 0. 4 5 8 \mathrm{mls}. $$ 1:50.000.000 (1" = 789.141 mls) $$ 1 ^ {\prime \prime} = 5 2 6. 0 9 4 \mathrm{mls}. $$ 1 : 5.000.000 (1" = 78.914 mls) $$ 1 ^ {\prime \prime} = 5 2. 6 0 9 \mathrm{mls}. $$ 1 : 2.500.000 (1" = 39.457 mls) $1'' = 26.505 \text{ mls. (reduction from } 1:2 \text{ M).}$ Due to the cartographic reproduction running parallel with compilation each map had to be prepared as an individual project. Consequently all standard tints i.e. light blue, brown and neutral, could not be utilized on other map sheets due to fit and changing cartographic layout. A master negative was produced for each of the scales 1:10 M to 1:50 M and photographic white prints on a matte surface plastic produced as required. This system allowed for better cartographic layout as names etc. could be repositioned for clarity of overlay material on any particular map sheet. After the drafting of each Atlas sheet a vandyke print was made and sent to the Geographical Branch for checking in order to eliminate extensive corrections after colour negatives were prepared. As in any Atlas the cartographer is faced with the problem of colour and the tendency is to use individual colours rather than combinations to produce the desired effect. This is particularly true of pie graphs, on which brilliant colours are desirable for the segments but which are not always available from the colours used on the actual map. Another example is the reproduction of special maps such as sheet No. 5 "Mapping the Interior", which illustrates a group of originals; this required twenty separate printings to accurately portray the colours. It was soon realized that a more reasonable approach to use of colour was necessary and studies were made to reduce the number of printings. Colour charts were prepared giving combinations up to thirty tints. There were four basic printings on most maps that could not be combined: black; neutral; light blue and a fine buff stipple. The average number of printings per Atlas sheet was reduced to nine, this allowed five or six individual colours to obtain the tints required. All colour tints were prepared by the artificial negative method. Blue lines were produced on vinyl plastic and gum reversals were made on the same material. Polystyrene high contrast film was used throughout and excellent registration was maintained. The colour tints were obtained by using contact screens produced in photo-mechanical plant. a) Dot screen (100 to the inch) b) 100 lines to the inch (both single and cross rulings) c) 65 lines to the inch (35% and 66% tints) d) 50 lines to the inch. The above screens were used in conjunction with the following colours:

Yellow

Light Brown

Dark Brown

Green

Light Blue

Dark Blue

Brilliant Pink

Red.

The above combinations produced thirty tints; however, for a few special maps. i.e. Bedrock Geology, Soil Regions, etc., special combinations of rulings and colours were used in order to adequately portray the information. Each map was photo-colour proofed on opaque plastic sheets by exposing each colour negative with the appropriate screen to successive coloured bichromated albumen coatings. These were passed to the Geographical Branch and the Editing Section for checking and minor corrections were made on the negatives. Plating of the maps for printing was a most exacting operation. Many multiple exposures to metal were necessary to obtain the various rulings and solids of a single colour in order to keep press runs to a minimum. To ensure that proper colour was maintained all maps were press proofed as the map was being printed. This naturally caused delays, but insured the correct end result. Cartographic work on the Atlas, although interfering with the Division's normal production of topographic maps, proved a tremendous educational stimulus in cartographic methods to the staff. It gave them the opportunity to develop new ideas as well as a completely new approach to our many mapping problems.

Atlas of Canada

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